Testing, Assessing, and Teaching

Hear the word “test”, our thoughts are not likely to be positive, pleasant, or affirming.

•      Can tests be positive experiences? YES!!
•      Can they build a person’s confidence and become learning experiences? YES!!
•      Can they bring out the best in students? YES!!

Before look at the tests and test design in language education, let’s see the three basic interrelated concepts: testing, assessment, and teaching.

What is a Test?

A test is a method measuring a person’s ability, knowledge, or performance in a given domain. A test is first a method. It is an instrument—a set of techniques, procedures, or items—that requires performance on the part of the test-takers.

A test must measure. Some tests measure general ability, while others focus on very specific competencies.

A test measures an individual’s ability, knowledge, or performance. Testers need to know who the test-takers are, including their previous experience and background.

Piaget’s Theory

Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896. After receiving his doctoral degree at age 22, Piaget formally began a career that would have a profound impact on both psychology and education. After working with Alfred Binet, Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual development of children. Based upon his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently.

English for Children

Human Body

The Differences between Piaget and Vygotsky’s Theory

Source of cognitive development 

 Piaget believed that the most important source of cognition is the children themselves.  Piaget emphasised the role of an inbuilt (biological) tendency to adapt to the environment, by a process of self-discovery and play. 

 Vygotsky emphasised the role of culture and experience. Vygotsky believed that what drives cognitive development is social interaction – a child’s experience with other people. Culture shapes cognition. 

Language and Thought 

 For Piaget, language is a product of cognitive development. In other words, cognitive development (IV) determines language use (DV). 

 Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for communication purposes. Later language ability becomes internalised as thought and “inner speech”. Thought is the result of language. 

 In other words, social interactions (IV) determines language use (DV).

Stage Theory 

 Piaget emphasised universal cognitive change. 

 Vygotsky’s theory can be applied to all ages (not a stage theory) and emphasised individual development. 

Discovery Learning (Education) 

 Piaget advocated for discovery learning with little teacher intervention. 

 Vygotsky promoted guided discovery in the classroom with the help of a MKO. 

Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)

Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior.

              Vygotsky's belief that human development–child development as well as the development of all humankind–is the result of interactions between people and their social environment. These interactions are not limited to actual people but also involve cultural artifacts, mainly language-based (written languages, number systems, various signs, and symbols).

              Vygotsky's theory is based on the idea that learning can lead development, and development can lead learning, and this process takes place through a dynamic  interrelationship. The ZPD is the area between a learner's level of independent performance (often called developmental level) and the level of assisted performance–what the child can do with support. Independent performance is the best the learner can do without help, and assisted performance is the maximum the learner can achieve with help. By observing assisted performance one can investigate a learner's potential for current highest level of functioning. ZPD reveals the learner's potential and is realized in interactions with knowledgeable others or in other supportive contexts (such as make-believe play for preschool children). By providing assistance to learners within their ZPD we are supporting their growth.

Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes:

Major themes:

What You Should Know about Dining with Canadian and American

We know that many countries have different cultures and habits of eating. What consider polite in one country doen't mean it is polite in the other countries. Here is the list that you have to pay attention when you eat with Canadian and American:

• Keep your mouth closed

Keeping your mouth closed while eating is very important when you eat with American, especially North American. It is considered as impolite if you don't keep your mouth closed while eating. Don't carry on a conversation when you are eating because it is awkward. When a person is talking to you, he or she will look at you, and the first thing that you have to do is that you have to listen to him or her. And the most important thing is that you are not allowed to put food into your mouth. It is a good manner if you really have full attention to the speaker. 

The Elements of Culture

Symbols 

Anything that has been given representational meaning by the members of a cultural group. 

Examples: Gestures, a flag, a statue.

Language

A system of patterned sounds, often with corresponding written symbols, that the members of a society use to communicate their thoughts and feelings to one another.

Examples: Swahili, English.

Values

Cultural standards or judgments of what is right, good, or desirable.

Examples: Personal freedom, egalitarianism.

Norms

The rules of culture that tell the members of a culture how they are expected to behave in a given situation.

Examples: Not talking out loud during a play, wearing black clothes to a funeral.

CULTURE AS CONTEXT FOR COMMUNICATION

THE DISPUTE OVER DEFINING CULTURE

Culture

• An example of how terminology can become a battlefield.
• The shared patterns of behaviors and interactions.
• The shared patterns can distinguish a group from the other groups

Today’s Definition

Culture:

1. A community  to be self-sustaining

2. A group’s thought, pattern of behavior, values and assumption

3. A process of social transmission

4. Members who consciously identify themselves

THE PERSISTENCE OF PREJUDICE

• Socialization
• Social benefits
• Economic benefits
• Psychologist benefits

HATE SPEECH

Hate speech>>speech which can cue prejudiced behavior.

Hate speech includes threats or verbal slurs directed against specific groups or physical acts such as burning crosses or spray-painting swastikas on public or private property (Walker, 1994)

Example:

"The Palestinians are like crocodiles, the more you give them meat, they want more".... Ehud Barak, Prime Minister of Israel at the time - August 28, 2000. Reported in the Jerusalem Post August 30, 2000.

HATE CRIME

Hate crime is a legal term that describes criminal acts motivated by prejudice. The term ethno violence is a broader term that describes acts of intimidation whether or not deemed illegal.

STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICE

Stereotypes

The broader term commonly used to refer to negative or positive judgements made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership.

Profiling

Refers to a law enforcement practice of scrutinizing certain individuals based on characteristics thought to indicate a likehood of criminal behaviour.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION

• Cause us to assume that a widely held belief is true when it may not be.
• Continued use of the stereotype reinforces the belief.
• Stereotypes also impede communication when they cause us to assume that a widely held belief is true of any one individual.
• The stereotype can become a “self-fulfilling prophecy” for the person stereotyped. 

Forces Toward the Development of Regional Cultures

The force fragmenting a national culture:
-United States in an integrated global economy.
- Have Integration and equal rights
- Immigration has  the heterogeneity of the U.S.

The New Regions
- Garreau (1981) described that what he called the “nine nations” of North America, some are: Atlanta (Georgia), Charlotte (South Caroline), Miami (Florida), Houston, Los Angeles, San Francisco’s, Seattle (Washington)

Forces Toward The Development of a Dominant Culture

Tocqueville predicted that U.S. will be a great power, because of the condition. American also express that U.S. is different based from the condition.

American also express that U.S. is different based from the condition.

Kluckhon and Strodtbeck (1961) argue that all human cultures are confronted with universally shared problems and value orientation theory suggest that cultures develop unique position in five value orientation.

They are: man nature orientation, activity orientation, time orientation, human nature orientation, and relational.

Dominant U.S. CULTURAL PATTERNS

Inroduction 

•A value is a central and basic motivating belief that shapes our goal and motivations (Rokeach and Ball Rokeach,1989). => attitude

•What is emic knowledge and etic knowledge?

•Emic   => from the inside.

•Etic   => by an outsider

Origin of U.S. Cultural Patterns

Children's Behavior in the United States

US individualism shows in attitudes toward children. In many societies, it is important to have many children. In the US, a few religious groups emphasize the importance of large families, but most people think one or two children are enough, and many couples have no children. Because taking care of a child is very costly financially, emotionally, and socially, many couples view large families as a disadvantage. Having many children would restrict the freedom and individualism of the parents as well as the other children in the family.

Parents teach individualism by the way they raise their children. They want to create a self-reliant, independent child, who can make it on her own by age eighteen. Parents begin teaching this self-reliance early, asking the child to do things on her own and praising her when she does. As a result, children are more talkative and assertive than children of other cultures. If they seem rude, it is because they have been taught to be assertive.

Social Gatherings in the United States

Social gatherings are quite informal in the US. Most people do not use parties to show wealth or taste. Parties are opportunities for people to gather, converse, and relax. As a result, the host-guest relationship, which is quite formal in many cultures, is very informal. Your host wants you to "feel at home." You may be greeted at the door with "Make yourself at home." This means you may have to serve yourself.

Invitations are usually informal and often oral, but tell the time and place: "Will you come over Tuesday evening at 8:00?" A statement such as "come and see me sometime" or "drop in" is not an invitation. It means that you must telephone before you drop in. If you accept an invitation, it is important that you go and be punctual. The host expects you to call as soon as possible if you must cancel. It is considered rude to simply not show up. If you are not interested in the invitation, it is better to politely refuse the date or appointment in the beginning. Refusing a date is not considered rude in the United States.

Sexual Involvement in the United States

The most awkward part of dating in the United States, as in many societies, revolves around sexual involvement. Like everything else in the United States, there are very few guidelines; attitudes vary tremendously from person to person and from relationship to relationship. There are, however, two rules which most people accept:

1. Sex is not expected during the early stages of a romantic relationship, and agreeing to a date or going to the home of your partner does not obligate you to have sex. Regardless of what you have seen in US movies or on television, that is not how dating works in the US.

Romantic Relationships & Dating in the United States

Romantic relationships are difficult between members of the same cultures; men and women often view romance quite differently. These problems increase in cross-cultural romance, and the source, again, is stereotypes. Men may perceive international women as "prudish", not interested in the opposite sex, nor in having fun. Women may perceive international men as being "wolves", interested only in the physical rewards of a relationship. International women often view men in the US in a similar way: they are interested only in sex. Foreign males may think all women in the US are willing sex partners. Again, it is important to be aware of these stereotypes, and that they are usually wrong.

MEETING PEOPLE IN THE UNITED STATES

Meeting people in the United States is not easy. Because of the problems mentioned previously, internationals sometimes stick together and avoid contact with people who live here. The best way to learn more about the United States is to meet and talk to new people.

There are countless opportunities to meet people in Tucson. On campus, there are dozens of student organizations. Find a club that shares your interests or hobbies. Attend the meetings. Remember shared interests are a way to meet people and to see them more than once. Check the Arizona Daily Wildcat for each day's meetings.

At CESL get involved in working on the Director's Award. By joining as many activities as possible and becoming involved in a variety of activities, you will meet more people, improve your language skills, and eventually make friends.

Socializing in the United States

SHAKING HANDS

Men usually shake right hands when they first meet. Men do not usually shake hands with a woman unless she offers her hand first. Shake hands the first time you meet someone, but not the second.

First impressions are important so you should learn to shake hands correctly. Right hands are clasped at waist level and arm's length. A firm squeeze occurs while the hands are raised slightly, then lowered and released. Do not squeeze too lightly or too strongly, and do not prolong the handshake by refusing to let go; that is social death in the US.

The Great American Nose

HYGIENE

Television commercials for soap, perfume, cologne, deodorant, anti-perspirant, toothpaste, mouthwash, breath mints, etc., show people's obsession with smelling good. People consider bad breath and natural body odor offensive in the United States, and the topic of these odors is so offensive that most people will not tell another person he or she has bad breath or body odor. You do not have to cover yourself with perfumes and chew gum constantly; a shower each day, clean clothes, and good dental care is enough. The following essay makes fun of the American Nose. 

Misjudgements & Differences

COMMON MISJUDGEMENTS

Internationals often think that people in the United States are incapable of deep conversation or thought. Many people are able to think and talk deeply, they are just reluctant to do so with strangers.

People in the US often think that internationals who speak rarely or quietly are too shy, too formal, or just dumb.

Arguing may alarm some people. They expect violence or long-lasting anger to follow such encounters.

Many people are easily embarrassed by sex, religion, and politics, and may assume that those who mention such topics are rude.

Some Characteristics of American People

INDIVIDUALISM

Most people in the US believe that the ideal person is independent and self-reliant, and most people think of themselves this way. People in the US do not think of themselves as representatives of their families, communities, or social class. Some international students see this attitude as "selfish". You can see examples of individualism in the classroom as well. Teachers expect students to be independent and individualistic, to work alone, and to produce original work.

Getting Along in the USA

Some Customs & Culture Tips 

Because of its history, the United States has a society with many different classes, groups, races and lifestyles. Within each of these groups, individual members are also quite different from one another. No one behaves exactly like anyone else. There are, however, several characteristics which most people have in common. Remember, these are general characteristics; many people you meet will not fit these patterns. 

Here are some tips from NAFSA publications for getting along with people in the USA.

DOMINANT CULTURAL PATTERNS

• The relationship between God and humankind
• The role of morality in human affairs
• The role of technology and modernization
• The nature of progress

COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

• Political unrest
• Westernization versus Cultural Norms
• Stereotypes

SAUDI ARABIA

• Saudi Arabia becomes one of the strongest economies in the world with oil as the source of its income.
• The government licenses of all bookshops, printing presses, and public relation agencies to ensure that standards of taste are maintained.
• The matawain or the regional Societies for the Preservation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice ensure strict compliance with religious requirements.

OMAN

• Type: Monarchy.
• Area: About 309,500 sq. km. (approximately the size of the State of New Mexico). It is bordered on the north by the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.), on the northwest by Saudi Arabia, and on the southwest by the Republic of Yemen. The Omani coastline stretches 3,165 km. 
• Cities: Capital--Muscat. Other cities--Salalah, Nizwa, Sohar, Sur. 
• Terrain: Mountains, plains, and arid plateau.
• Climate: Hot and humid along the coast; hot and dry in the interior; summer monsoon in the far south. 
• Nationality: Noun--Oman. Adjective--Omani(s).
• Population (2006 est.): 3.20 million (includes 577,000 non-nationals). 
• Religions: Ibadhi; Sunni Muslim, Shia Muslim, Hindu, Christian.
• Languages: Arabic (official), English, Baluchi, Urdu, Swahili, Hindi and Indian dialects.

COMPARATIVE CULTURE PATTERNS

THE ARAB STATES 

THE ISLAMIC FAITH

• Muhammad the Prophet
• Born at 12th night Rabiul Awal 14th century.
• His father Abdullah is passed away before he born and his mother is too when he was six years old, at the eight years old his grandfather Abdul Muthalib is passed away too.
• Muhammad lives with his uncle Abu Thalib.
• Muhammad the Prophet receive his first revelation in Hira Cave at 40 years old.
• He do a religious proselytizing twenty three years long in Mecca and Madinah.

Some Customs and Characteristics in the United States

Some Customs and Characteristics in the United States

INDIVIDUALISM

Most people in the US believe that the ideal person is independent and self-reliant, and most people think of themselves this way. People in the US do not think of themselves as representatives of their families, communities, or social class. Some international students see this attitude as "selfish". You can see examples of individualism in the classroom as well. Teachers expect students to be independent and individualistic, to work alone, and to produce original work.

Different Customs Create Barrier in International Communication

            Making Conversation

            In making conversation, we have to know where the people come from because we have different customs. We do not know which one is polite and which one is impolite. We have to think about the topic and start with the general topic.

            In a conversation or "Small talk" they usually talk about such topics, like sports, weather, jobs, or past experiences. Most people do not talk about religion, politics, or personal feelings with strangers. Sex and bodily functions are not discussed. People do not usually talk about the personal lives of their conversation partners. This emotional distance does not mean people dislike you, but personal lives are discussed only with close friends and family.

           

Factors that Can Create Barriers in Human Communication

1. Not understanding the language

Verbal and non-verbal messages are in a different language. This includes not understanding the idioms used by another sub-culture or group. Not understanding the language also means that body language cannot be understood. One person may greet another person differently. If the two people do not understand each other then it can cause a rift in communication.

Different Language and Customs Create Barriers in International Communication

A. Language

Language is the expression of thought, with the translation of notions into words being the act of understanding. Understanding the language is very important in communication. Without understanding the language, we cannot communicate to the other people who we want to communicate.

B. Language Creates Barriers in International Communication

There are two types of language, verbal language and non verbal language or body language. What creates barriers in communication is usually non verbal language.

When you have communication difficulties, you may think it is because of spoken or written language. However, many mis-understandings happen because of non-verbal communication, or body language.

The Aspects Involved In Communication

There are many aspects involved in communication. The aspects are very important in communication. Both in verbal communication and non-verbal communication. The important aspects are language, gesture, eye contact, and also written symbols which communicate thoughts and feelings. Unfortunately, all of the aspects are not the same across the country. Of course, they will create barriers in communication.

The Language Barrier in General

The language barrier in general is pretty severe. It can create miscommunication and also misunderstanding between the speakers, especially in international communication. They have different languages, cultures, customs, traditions, and norms that can create barrier in international communication.

DEFINING COMMUNICATION AS AN ELEMENT OF CULTURE

à WESTERN DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

F  Origin

Described the process of communication as involving a speaker, the speech act, an audience, and  a purpose.

F  Transmission models

Communication was studied as the means of transmitting ideas.

Communication is a dynamic process.

F  Components of communication

1.  Source : person with an idea to communicate

2. Encoding : puttting an idea into a symbol

3. Message : resulting object

4. Channel : media

5. Noise : anything that distorts the message

6. Receiver : person who attends to the message

7. Decoding : assigning meaning to the symbols received

8. Receiver Response : anything the receiver does

9. Feedback : portion of the receiver response

10. Context : the environment in which the communication takes place and which helps define the communication

The Aspects Involved In Communication

There are many aspects involved in communication. The aspects are very important in communication. Both in verbal communication and non-verbal communication. The important aspects are language, gesture, eye contact, and also written symbols which communicate thoughts and feelings. Unfortunately, all of the aspects are not the same across the country. Of course, they will create barriers in communication. 

The Nature of Communication

To know what the nature of communication is we have to know what communication means. Communication comes from the Latin communis, "common." When we communicate, we are trying to establish a "commonness" with someone. That is, we are trying to share information, an idea or an attitude. Communications is the mechanism through which human relations exist and develop. Or it can be said that communication is the process whereby one person tells another something through the written or spoken word.

STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICE AS BARRIERS

-          STEREOTYPES

The broader term commonly used to refer to negative or positive judgments made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership. Stereotypes can be positive or negative

-          PROFILING

Refers to a law enforcement practice of scrutinizing certain individuals based on characteristics thought to indicate a likehood of criminal behaviour. Just perceptions based on physical appearance.

-          NEGATIVE EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION

1. Cause us to assume that a widely held belief is true when it may not be.

2. Continued use of the stereotype reinforces the belief.

3. Stereotypes also impede communication when they cause us to assume that a widely held belief is true of any one individual.

4. The stereotype can become a “self-fulfilling prophecy” for the person stereotyped.

CULTURE AS CONTEXT FOR COMMUNICATION

Culture

F  A system of knowledge, belief, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that are acquired, shared, and used by members during daily living.

19th-Century Definition of Culture

F  Culture was commonly used as a synonym for Western Civilization.

F  Western cultures were considered superior.

Today’s Definition of Culture

F                 A community à to be self-sustaining.

F  A group’s thought, experiences, patterns of behavior, values and assumptions.

F                 A process of social transmission.

F                 Members who consciously identify themselves

BARRIERS TO INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

µ  Ethnographic and Cultural Approach

Noting every activity, observe, and evaluation. For example, if we want to know about Americans’ culture we have to live there for maybe some months or a year.

µ  The Cultural Approach

A cultural approach attempts to develop an ideal personification of the culture, and then that ideal is used to explain the actions of individuals in the culture. For example, it would be important to know that the Aboriginal people began arriving on the Australian continent 40,000 years before North and South America were inhabited and that it was not until 1788 that 11 ships carrying a cargo of human prisoners to begin a new British colony by taking control of the land.

The Study of Learners’ Language: Error Analysis

Lapses, mistakes and errors

Errors that are made by learners are linguistically different with errors that are made by a native speaker. Usually, the mistakes made by native speaker are changes of plan, where he starts an utterance, breaks off and starts another one with a different structure. For example:

It’s a bit—it’s hasn’t—I mean, I wouldn’t really care to have one just like that …

Native speaker may also make mistakes that are called “syntactic blends”. He may convert one structure into another without breaking off. Here is the example:

One wonders…why this country should support foreigners in our already overcrowded prisons…for the non payment of fines of which they had no opportunity to pay.

The redundant of appears to arise from a confusion of two constructions:

…no opportunity of paying

…no opportunity to pay

The third one is that “slips of the tongue” or “slips of the pen”. For example:

It didn’t bother me in the sleast…slightest

But those frunds…funds have been frozen

…of Peester Ustinov

Native speakers frequently make slips or false starts or confusions of structure. They are called lapses. Then the term error is to refer to those features of the learner’s utterances which differ from those of any native speaker. Lapses have no immediate relevance to the problem of language learning. It may not always be easy to distinguish between a learner’s errors and his/her lapses.

Contrastive Linguistic Studies

What the learner knows

Language teacher need to teach his/her student about what the student does not yet know of what s/he needs to know. Some students might have known about something that they need to know before they come to the class. Language teaching always starts when student/learner has already achieved his/her mother tongue because s/he will know about the formation rules or the code of his/her mother tongue. Of course it will help the student to learn L2 better. So, it is very important for students to understand their L1 first before they start to study L2.