Testing, Assessing, and Teaching

Hear the word “test”, our thoughts are not likely to be positive, pleasant, or affirming.

•      Can tests be positive experiences? YES!!
•      Can they build a person’s confidence and become learning experiences? YES!!
•      Can they bring out the best in students? YES!!

Before look at the tests and test design in language education, let’s see the three basic interrelated concepts: testing, assessment, and teaching.

What is a Test?

A test is a method measuring a person’s ability, knowledge, or performance in a given domain. A test is first a method. It is an instrument—a set of techniques, procedures, or items—that requires performance on the part of the test-takers.

A test must measure. Some tests measure general ability, while others focus on very specific competencies.

A test measures an individual’s ability, knowledge, or performance. Testers need to know who the test-takers are, including their previous experience and background.

Piaget’s Theory

Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896. After receiving his doctoral degree at age 22, Piaget formally began a career that would have a profound impact on both psychology and education. After working with Alfred Binet, Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual development of children. Based upon his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently.

English for Children

Human Body

The Differences between Piaget and Vygotsky’s Theory

Source of cognitive development 

 Piaget believed that the most important source of cognition is the children themselves.  Piaget emphasised the role of an inbuilt (biological) tendency to adapt to the environment, by a process of self-discovery and play. 

 Vygotsky emphasised the role of culture and experience. Vygotsky believed that what drives cognitive development is social interaction – a child’s experience with other people. Culture shapes cognition. 

Language and Thought 

 For Piaget, language is a product of cognitive development. In other words, cognitive development (IV) determines language use (DV). 

 Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for communication purposes. Later language ability becomes internalised as thought and “inner speech”. Thought is the result of language. 

 In other words, social interactions (IV) determines language use (DV).

Stage Theory 

 Piaget emphasised universal cognitive change. 

 Vygotsky’s theory can be applied to all ages (not a stage theory) and emphasised individual development. 

Discovery Learning (Education) 

 Piaget advocated for discovery learning with little teacher intervention. 

 Vygotsky promoted guided discovery in the classroom with the help of a MKO. 

Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)

Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of socialization and social behavior.

              Vygotsky's belief that human development–child development as well as the development of all humankind–is the result of interactions between people and their social environment. These interactions are not limited to actual people but also involve cultural artifacts, mainly language-based (written languages, number systems, various signs, and symbols).

              Vygotsky's theory is based on the idea that learning can lead development, and development can lead learning, and this process takes place through a dynamic  interrelationship. The ZPD is the area between a learner's level of independent performance (often called developmental level) and the level of assisted performance–what the child can do with support. Independent performance is the best the learner can do without help, and assisted performance is the maximum the learner can achieve with help. By observing assisted performance one can investigate a learner's potential for current highest level of functioning. ZPD reveals the learner's potential and is realized in interactions with knowledgeable others or in other supportive contexts (such as make-believe play for preschool children). By providing assistance to learners within their ZPD we are supporting their growth.

Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes:

Major themes:

What You Should Know about Dining with Canadian and American

We know that many countries have different cultures and habits of eating. What consider polite in one country doen't mean it is polite in the other countries. Here is the list that you have to pay attention when you eat with Canadian and American:

• Keep your mouth closed

Keeping your mouth closed while eating is very important when you eat with American, especially North American. It is considered as impolite if you don't keep your mouth closed while eating. Don't carry on a conversation when you are eating because it is awkward. When a person is talking to you, he or she will look at you, and the first thing that you have to do is that you have to listen to him or her. And the most important thing is that you are not allowed to put food into your mouth. It is a good manner if you really have full attention to the speaker. 

The Elements of Culture

Symbols 

Anything that has been given representational meaning by the members of a cultural group. 

Examples: Gestures, a flag, a statue.

Language

A system of patterned sounds, often with corresponding written symbols, that the members of a society use to communicate their thoughts and feelings to one another.

Examples: Swahili, English.

Values

Cultural standards or judgments of what is right, good, or desirable.

Examples: Personal freedom, egalitarianism.

Norms

The rules of culture that tell the members of a culture how they are expected to behave in a given situation.

Examples: Not talking out loud during a play, wearing black clothes to a funeral.

CULTURE AS CONTEXT FOR COMMUNICATION

THE DISPUTE OVER DEFINING CULTURE

Culture

• An example of how terminology can become a battlefield.
• The shared patterns of behaviors and interactions.
• The shared patterns can distinguish a group from the other groups

Today’s Definition

Culture:

1. A community  to be self-sustaining

2. A group’s thought, pattern of behavior, values and assumption

3. A process of social transmission

4. Members who consciously identify themselves

THE PERSISTENCE OF PREJUDICE

• Socialization
• Social benefits
• Economic benefits
• Psychologist benefits

HATE SPEECH

Hate speech>>speech which can cue prejudiced behavior.

Hate speech includes threats or verbal slurs directed against specific groups or physical acts such as burning crosses or spray-painting swastikas on public or private property (Walker, 1994)

Example:

"The Palestinians are like crocodiles, the more you give them meat, they want more".... Ehud Barak, Prime Minister of Israel at the time - August 28, 2000. Reported in the Jerusalem Post August 30, 2000.

HATE CRIME

Hate crime is a legal term that describes criminal acts motivated by prejudice. The term ethno violence is a broader term that describes acts of intimidation whether or not deemed illegal.

STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICE

Stereotypes

The broader term commonly used to refer to negative or positive judgements made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership.

Profiling

Refers to a law enforcement practice of scrutinizing certain individuals based on characteristics thought to indicate a likehood of criminal behaviour.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS ON COMMUNICATION

• Cause us to assume that a widely held belief is true when it may not be.
• Continued use of the stereotype reinforces the belief.
• Stereotypes also impede communication when they cause us to assume that a widely held belief is true of any one individual.
• The stereotype can become a “self-fulfilling prophecy” for the person stereotyped.